1861-ca. 1930
Guide to the Photograph Collection
Abstract
Photographs of General Clarence Ransom Edwards, his family, and his diplomatic and military associates.
Biographical Sketch
Clarence Ransom Edwards (1859-1931) was the eldest son of prominent merchant William and Lucia (Ransom) Edwards of Cleveland, Ohio, and brother of Harry, Lucia, and Kate. Clarence, the nephew of Union Civil War hero Oliver Edwards, seemed destined for a military career. He attended the Brooks Military Academy and graduated from West Point in 1883, ranked 52nd in a class of 52. His lack of academic prowess, however, did not limit his later achievements.
His military career was wide-ranging, beginning with a commission as second lieutenant and a posting at Fort Union, New Mexico, followed by duty at Fort Porter in Buffalo, New York, where he met and married Bessie Rochester Porter in 1889. The couple had one daughter, Bessie Porter Edwards, who died at age 21 while in training to be an army nurse. During the Spanish-American War, Edwards served in the Philippines (1898-1900) and afterwards became Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs (1900-1912). He was politically well connected, and his close associates included future President William Howard Taft and Secretary of War Jacob Dickinson. In 1912, Edwards was assigned to regular army duty, commanding the 6th Brigade at Fort D. A. Russell in Wyoming and Texas City, Texas, before being sent to Hawaii to command the 1st Brigade. In 1915, he was ordered to Panama as commander of U.S. forces there.
After the American declaration of war on Germany in 1917, Edwards was given command of the 26th "Yankee" Division and authorized to gather National Guard troops from New England. He took his division to France, where they saw action against German forces at Chemin des Dames, Bois Brule, Seicheprey, Chateau Thierry, St. Mihiel, and the Argonne Forest. Edwards was relieved of duty just seventeen days before the armistice and ordered home by General John J. Pershing who objected to Edwards "unmilitary" style of command. This exile only increased Edwards's popularity with his troops who referred to him as "Daddy." After the war, he was mentioned as a possible candidate for public office.
From 1918 to 1920, Edwards again headed the Northeastern Department of the Army; he was promoted to major general in 1922 and retired from the army and lived out his retirement at "Doneroving," a farm in Westwood, Massachusetts. The general remained in touch with many members of his former Yankee Division and continued to push for official recognition of the division's accomplishments in battle. He was especially active in the movements for universal military training and against prohibition in the 1920s. He also served as chairman of the board of his father's Cleveland business and was a strong proponent of airship commerce. He died from complications resulting from an intestinal obstruction on 14 February 1931 and is buried with his wife and daughter at Arlington National Cemetery.
Sources
Shay, Michael E. Revered Commander, Maligned General: The Life of Clarence Ransom Edwards, 1859-1931. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011.
Collection Description
The Clarence Ransom Edwards photographs comprise images of Edwards's family, friends, and military and political associates from throughout his life. The collection includes images from Edwards's trips and postings abroad, including photographs of Korea and Japan taken while on tour with William H. Taft; photographs of the Philippines, Panama, California, and other military postings; and many unidentified photographs. Several photographs document the return of Edwards and the Yankee Division from World War I and Edwards's retirement as a gentleman farmer. The collection also includes several unidentified photographs of babies and children, the offspring of "Daddy" Edwards's Yankee Division.
Acquisition Information
Gift of the Clarence Ransom Edwards estate through John W. Hyatt, 1932. Additions were a gift of the Bessie Hale Hawes estate through David Lee, 2002.
Detailed Description of the Collection
I. Portraits
This series contains portraits of Clarence Ransom Edwards and various family members, as well as military and political associates. Unidentified portraits are listed at the end of each section.
Individual portraits
Albert I, King of Belgium (1875-1934), 1918
Allaire, W. H., 1908
Taken by S'Ora, Wien.Barnes, D. Oliver, June 1924
Bellinger, John B. (1862-1931), November 1922
Front inscribed: "To Betsey and Clarence with love from Johnnie B. February 14th, 1923." Verso inscribed: "John Bellinger Bellinger, Brigadier General, Quartermaster Corps. Taken November 1922."Bliss, Tasker H. (1853-1930), undated
Inscribed: "Very sincerely Your friend Tasker H. Bliss."Borah, William E. (1865-1940), ca. 1927
Taken by Harris & Ewing for the Roosevelt Club, Boston.Boyle, Terence J.,ca. 1920?
Taken by W. R. Harrison, Jersey City.Inscribed: "To Major General Clarence R. Edwards--the soldier and the man--loyal and true--the ideal of my youth and the inspiration of my manhood, with best wishes from one of his old boys at Fordham, Terence J. Boyle S.J."Brittain, William S., ca. 1917
Taken by F. Green, Boston.Copy of obituary notice pasted to mount.Carpenter, Fred W., 1908
Taken by Harris & Ewing.Inscribed: "For my friend Mrs. Clarence Edwards. With the sincere regard of Fred W. Carpenter May 1, 1910."Cary, Dr., undated
Photograph of a man on horseback performing a cavalry maneuver known as "lemon slicing." A label affixed to the back of the print explains the move.
Colgan, George A. J.,1861
Postcard reproduction of a photograph dated April 19, '61.Cook, Stanley D., ca. 1917
Verso inscribed: "Sergt. Stanley D. Cook, enlisted in 301st F. S. Bat."Cootes, Harvey N., ca. 191.
Taken by International, Manila.Crabtree, Lotta (1847-1924), ca. 1880
Taken by C. G. Wynn and Co., Detroit, Michigan.Edwards, Bessie Porter (1898-1918), ca. 1917
Edwards, Bessie Rochester Porter (1868-1929), ca. 1922
Taken by Bachrach.[Unidentified woman, possibly Bessie Rochester Porter Edwards or Lucia Edwards (b. 1869)], ca. 1889
Taken by Theodore Endean, Cleveland, Ohio.Edwards, Clarence Ransom (1859-1931), ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, N.Y.Cabinet photographs of Edwards as a Cadet at West Point.
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1900-1903
Edwards in uniform during his tenure in the Bureau of Insular Affairs.
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1900-1903
Edwards in civilian clothing, sitting behind a desk.
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1900-1903
Taken by Gilbert Studios, Philadelphia Washington & Atlantic City.Formal portraits of Edwards, different poses, taken at the same sitting.
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1905
Photograph of a drawing dated 1905.Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1910?
Edwards, in uniform, with horse.
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1910?
Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1915-1917
Photograph affixed to an envelope sent to Edwards while on duty in the Panama Canal Zone.Edwards, Clarence R., 1917
Taken by Jennings.Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1917-1918
Taken by J. E. Purdy & Co., Boston.Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1917-1918
Edwards, in uniform, walks alongside a flag-draped coffin on horse-drawn hearse.
Edwards, Clarence R., 1919
Edwards, on horseback, leads the 1919 Yankee Division Parade through the streets of Boston.
Edwards, Clarence R., July 1920
Edwards, Clarence R., 1920
Taken by R. W. Sears, Boston.Edwards performing various tasks around his farm.
Edwards, Clarence R., 1920s
Taken by the Boston Transcript.Edwards working on the farm.
Edwards, Clarence R., 1922
Edwards, Clarence R., 1922
Taken by Marceau Studios, Boston.Inscribed: "To my friend Lindsay Hale ... Aug. 1922 ... C. R. Edwards."Edwards, Clarence R., Nov. 1922
Verso inscribed: "Taken at the steps of the Beta Tau house, Tufts College, Massachusetts, November 17, 1922."Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1920s
Photograph of a print or painting.Edwards, Clarence R., ca. 1920?
Taken by Underwood & Underwood, Washington, D.C.Edwards, Clarence R., in uniform, standing with horse, ca. 1918
Edwards, Clarence R., in uniform, seated, 1922
Taken by Marceau, Boston.Edwards, Clarence R., seated by a fireplace, late 1920s
Small photograph of stone cabin pasted on mat.[Unidentified man, probably Harry Ransom Edwards (b. 1862)], ca. 1885
Taken by Theodore Endean, Cleveland, Ohio.Edwards, Lucia Ransom (1833-1914), ca. 1890s
Edwards, William (1831-1898), undated
Col. William Edwards driving a horse drawn carriage.
Farley, John H., undated
Inscribed: "To General Edwards. A specimen of that funny thing called a Jesuit--John [illegible] Farley, S.J."Forbes, W. Cameron (1870-1959), 1904
Taken by J. E. Purdy, Boston, Mass.Inscribed: "To Col. Clarence R. Edwards with the respects of W. Cameron Forbes."Greenlaw, Albert E., ca. 1919
Taken by G. Frank Radway for the Boston American.Griart, Monsieur de, undated
Taken by Langdon, Chicago.Haller, Jozef (1873-1960), 1923
Harbold, Robert P., ca. 1919?
Taken by R. W. Sears.Harbord, James Guthrie, 1910
Taken by International, Manila.Inscribed: "Yours faithfully J. G. Harbord Asst. Chief P. C. Manila 1910."Harwood, Ralph W., 1917-1918
Verso inscribed: "Ralph W. Harwood Barre, Mass. 2nd Lieut. 102d Inf., 26th Division A.E.F."Infant son of Clarence Elmer Heller, after 1919
Taken by Wagner, Philadelphia, Penn.Inscribed to Edwards by Clarence Elmer Heller, who served with Edwards during World War I.Herzog, Stanley J., 1918
Hiroyasu, Prince Fushimi (1875-1946), undated
Taken by R. Maruki, Japan.Hodge, Leslie R., 1917
Inscribed: "Sergt. Leslie R. Hodge Co. F. 101st Inf. A.E.F. Killed in action, Sep. 12, 1918 St. Mihiel France. YD"Irving, Isabel, 1900
Taken by Sarony, New York.Lawton, Henry Ware (1843-1899), [ca. 1890]
Taken by Falk, New York.Lawton, Henry Ware, 1898 or 1899
Lind, Jenny (1820-1887), undated
Photograph of a ca. 1850 engraving.Mallory, John Skinner (1857-1932), 1917
Taken by L. M. Williams, Brooklyn, N.Y.McDonald, John Bacon (1859-1927), [ca. 1917]
Miller, Oliver C., [ca. 1900?]
Taken by Imperial Studio, San Francisco.Newell, John III at six weeks, 1925
O'Brien, Joseph P., ca. 1917-1922
Parker, Lieutenant, 1917
Two snapshots of Lieutenant Parker jumping with his horse Doughboy.
Pendleton, Andrew L., ca. 1920
Taken by Thurston Hatcher, Atlanta.Phipps, Frank H., 1900
Roosevelt, Theodore (1858-1919), 1918
Copyright, Baker Art Gallery.Root, Elihu (1845-1937), ca. 1920?
Satterlee, Herbert, 1909
Schwartz, Joe, 1908
Taft, William Howard (1857-1930), ca. 1905
Torres, Antonio C., 1925
Taken by C. M. Bell, Washington, D.C.Wheelwright, John Brooks (1897-1940), undated
Williams, George, 1922
Young, William H. (1844-1934), 1912
Two postcard portraits of William H. Young, also known as "Apache Bill."
Unidentified baby, 1925
Taken by Edwardson.Two studio photographs of a baby identified only as "Baby Connie at eight months."
Unidentified boy wearing doughboy uniform and holding a flag, ca. 1917
Unidentified Filipino soldiers, ca. 1898-1899
Four different colored photographs of Filipino troops in uniform.Unidentified girls
Unidentified man, 1900s
Unidentified men, military
Unidentified men, non-military
Unidentified toddler, 1920s
Taken by J. E. Purdy, Boston.Unidentified women
Unidentified woman standing underneath a palm tree, 1915
Unidentified woman, 1890s
Taken by Lallie Charles, Mayfair.Unidentified woman, 1910-1920
Unidentified woman in wedding gown, 1920s
Mat inscribed: "To dear General and Mrs. Edwards with love from Cecilia."Group portraits
American Legion, Massachusetts Department Officers, 1923-1924
Baker Field Kitchen, no. 1, ca. 1917
Taken by Hawksley.Photograph of a truck fitted out as a military field kitchen with black driver and cook.
Company F of 23rd Regiment receiving colors, Hotel Galvez, 4 July 1913
Taken by M. E. Verkin."Cushing girls," undated
Snapshot of three girls dressed in Dutch costume. Inscribed on verso: "Merry Christmas from some Cushing girls."
Dewey, George (1837-1917), Henry Ware Lawton, Clarence R. Edwards, and unidentified officer, 1898 or 1899
Taken by B. W. Kilburn.Dickinson, Jacob M. (1851-1928) and others, including Clarence Edwards & family, 1910
Group photograph in unidentified location of the party accompanying Secretary of War Dickinson on his world tour which began in June of 1910.
Edwards, Bessie (1868-1929), and unidentified woman, Fort Clark, April 1897
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, in stadium, [ca. 1919?]
Edwards, Clarence, and Bessie, in horse-drawn carriage, [ca. 1890?]
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie at "Doneroving," 1920s
Taken by the Boston Transcript.Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie at "Doneroving," with horse, 1920
Taken by Richard W. Sears.Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, 1920s
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, with an unidentified man in an open car, 1920s
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, 1920s
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, at home, 1929
Edwards, Clarence R. and Bessie, with two unidentified men holding Yankee Division flags, 1927
Taken by Warren C. King, Portland, Maine.Backing signed by members of the Yankee Division Club of Portland.Edwards, Clarence R. and Captain Chandler on Commonwealth Pier, watching the Winifredian coming in, April 1919
Taken by G. Frank Radway.Edwards, Clarence R. and William Edwards Otis, December 1918
Inscribed on verso: "The general and his nephew William Edwards Otis, who Ran Away to Join the Navy. Dec. 27, 1918."
Edwards, Clarence R. and Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War, ca. 1917
Taken by G. Frank Radway.Edwards, Clarence R. with Jacob M. Dickinson and Igorotti Chiefs and families, ca. 1898
Edwards, Clarence R., Governor Samuel McCall and Governor-Elect Calvin Coolidge at the State House, 1918
Edwards, Clarence R., Pierre S. DuPont & Elizabeth Harris, 1930
Edwards, Clarence R. & Moro Chiefs, 1899-1900
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified veterans, July 1921
Snapshot. Inscribed on verso: "Our General and some of his lads. Plymouth, Mass. July 3, 1921. 120 [degrees] in the sun."
Edwards, Clarence R. and members of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Co. of Boston, 1921
Edwards, Clarence R. and others visiting a child in hospital, 1917 or 1918
Edwards, Clarence R. and others at a graduation ceremony, 1920s
Taken by W. E. Corbin, Florence, Mass.Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified man, both on horseback, undated
Edwards, Clarence R. and wounded veterans, 1919
Taken by Jack Williams.Edwards, Clarence R. and others on shipboard, undated
Edwards, Clarence R. and troops aboard the Agamemnon, 1919
Taken by G. Frank Radway.Edwards, Clarence R., unidentified soldiers, and young woman, probably daughter Bessie, 1917
Edwards, Clarence R. and two unidentified men, one a naval officer, 1920s
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified schoolgirls, 1920s
Edwards, Clarence R. with unidentified soldiers and women, possibly Bessie and Young Bessie, undated
Edwards, Clarence R. and two unidentified men, one an army officer, ca. 1899
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified soldier, 1919?
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified soldier, July 1918
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified soldiers, 1919?
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified soldiers, 1920
Taken by de Forest.Edwards, Clarence R. and members of the Signal Corps, 94th Division, 1922
Taken by Richard W. Sears.Edwards, Clarence R. pinning medal on coat of Capt. Paul Hines of the 102d Infantry, 26 Sep. 1918
Edwards, Clarence R. and staff, 1916
Taken by Jennings.Edwards, Clarence R. and New England politicians, drafting cable to General Pershing requesting that all former 26th division troops be returned home, Feb. 1919
Taken by Jack Williams.Label affixed to photograph identifies all those present.Edwards, Clarence R., George Dewey, Henry Ware Lawton, and others, 1898 or 1899
Edwards, Clarence R., William H. Taft, Archie Butt, and Jonathan Bourne on a golf course, 1909
Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified man at funeral, 15 May 1920
Edwards, Clarence R. and others in open car along parade route, 1919?
Edwards, Clarence R., William Howard Taft, and others, 1907?
Photograph inscribed: "We back the Secretary Your Korean friend R. S. Dunn."Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified man in front of Booker T. Washington monument at Tuskegee, ca. 1922
Taken by L. G. Hyman.Edwards, Clarence R. and unidentified Scottish officer, 1920s?
Edwards, Clarence R., Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933) and Grace Coolidge (1879-1957), 1923
Taken by F. A. George.Edwards, Clarence R., Mayor John F. Cronin, Louise A. Callahan, and winners of prizes in the U.S. Army Contest, Holyoke, Massachusetts, 1920s
Taken by Gordon, Holyoke, Mass.Edwards, William (1831-1898), Lucia Ransom Edwards (1833-1914) and others at the Glenville track, undated
Taken by de Forest.Eighth Army Corps officers, en route to the Philippine Islands, 1898
Taken by J. D. Givens, San Francisco, Calif.Foot, Isaac and three unidentified men, 1921
Taken by E. P. McLaughlin, Plymouth, Mass.Fordham University military recruits performing calisthenics, ca. 1917
Taken by Central News Photo Service.Fordham University military exercises, ca. 1917
Taken by Central News Photo Service.Harvard College, Class of 1883, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.Hasty Pudding Club, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.Massachusetts National Guard 3rd Infantry Band, 1921
Military guard outside the tomb of Garfield, 1886
Taken by H. B. Reeves, Cleveland, Ohio.Mounted officers, Fort Clark, 1897
Officers at Fort Tampa, 1898
Porter, Julia with A. G. Porter and dog, 1910
Porter, Mrs. [Julia] and Miss, undated.
Roosevelt, Theodore & Russell J. Coles, 1917
Inscribed on verso: "Col. Theodore Roosevelt & Russell J. Coles on Devilfish harpooning expedition on coast of Fla. March 26th 1917."
Roosevelt, Theodore & Russell J. Coles, 1918
Inscribed on verso: "Just after the degree Doctor of Science had been conferred on Col. Theodore Roosevelt & Russell J. Coles by Trinity College Hartford Conn., June 18th 1918."
Root, Elihu, and military officers, ca. 1898?
Taft, William H., Alice Roosevelt, Nicholas Longworth and others aboard the Manchuria,, 1905
Taft, William Howard and others, 1905
Group photographs taken in China, Japan, and Manila during William H. Taft's trip to those countries. Neither individuals nor exact locations are identified.
Unidentified army officers and schoolchildren, undated
Unidentified, banquet, 1920s
Unidentified men, Boston, Mass., 1922
Taken by de Forest.Unidentified group, Boston Common, 5 June 1922
Taken by Richard W. Sears.Unidentified group of men and women on horseback, undated
Military dress parade, unknown location, undated
Military and naval officers, ca. 1919?
Soldiers and two women at a military recruiting office, ca. 1917
Taken by Harris & Ewing, Washington, D.C.Unidentified military men aboard ship, undated
Five unidentified military officers, the face of one cut out of the picture. Partially identified on verso as "Sage, Treat, Morton & Treble."
Unidentified military officer and woman, 1900s?
Unidentified military officers in camp, undated
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.Unidentified officers on horseback, review of 104th Infantry, Harreville, January 1918
Unidentified group of men and women, probably San Juan, undated
Taken by A. Moscioni.Unidentified Sixth Brigade officers, undated
West Point, Class of 1883, 1883
West Point cadets in camp, ca. 1883
West Point cadets and young women in camp, ca. 1883
West Point cadets and young women in camp, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.West Point cadets, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.West Point cadets in camp, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.West Point Class of 1883, ca. 1883
Taken by Pach Brothers, New York.West Point Class of 1883 reunion, undated
Yankee Division Veterans' Association banquet to Clarence Edwards, 1925
Taken by Shutz.Yankee Division Club of Portland, Maine, decorating a grave on Memorial Day, 1920s
Unidentified boating party aboard the Nancy, ca. 1905-1910
Taken by H. W. MacDonald.Unidentified children, 1922
Taken by Morrall.Unidentified man and woman, ca. 1890?
Unidentified dignitaries, Budapest, ca. 1920?
Taken by Reich, Budapest.Last names of some of the men written in ink on the photograph.Unidentified family, 1890s
Unidentified family at Glenellen, 1880s
Unidentified girls working in a garden, ca. 1910?
Unidentified men with horses, 1880s
Taken by Sweeny, Cleveland, Ohio.Unidentified men on ship, ca. 1900
Unidentified military inspection, probably 1919
Unidentified group, undated
Unidentified groups at the beach, undated
Unidentified group in horse drawn carriage, ca. 1880s
Unidentified group in pony cart, ca. 1880s
Unidentified group on ship, ca. 1900?
Unidentified men in open carriage, undated
Unidentified women, ca. 1900?
Unidentified women and children in cabins, undated
Photograph album
Clarence Ransom Edwards photograph album, ca. 1890s-1910
An album containing black and white snapshots, largely unidentified. The album includes photographs of families, animals, houses and military bases, and a number of photographs of William Howard Taft. For loose photographs removed from album, see Photo. 264.364-264.370.
Scrapbook
Clarence & Bessie Edwards scrapbook, ca. 1923-1931
A dismantled scrapbook album containing snapshots and newspaper clippings, documenting Edwards's retirement years at Doneroving farm in Westwood, Massachusetts. The album includes photographs of Clarence and Bessie Edwards, farm animals, and snapshots of unidentified people, likely taken at the farm.
II. Views
United States
California: Fort Barry, ca. 1910
Massachusetts: Atlantic Film Corporation of New England, undated
Massachusetts: Boston Common, 1919?
New Jersey: Camp Dix, 1920
Photographs taken during the 1st Division reunion in November of 1920.
New York: Niagara Falls, undated
South Carolina: Charleston, undated
Taken by George W. Johnson, Charleston, S.C.Unidentified views, probably United States
These photographs include views of houses, probably lived in by Edwards and his family in their various postings around the country.
Unidentified house, interior, undated
Foreign
Panama: miscellaneous views, ca. 1915
Panama: Panama Golf Club, ca. 1915
Panama: Headquarters, U.S. Army, Panama Canal Zone, ca. 1915
Philippines: Laguna Provincial Building, undated
Philippines: Spring and building used as small pox hospital by insurgents at Sibul, ca. 1899
Philippines: Monument to General Henry Ware Lawton, 1903
Puerto Rico: Miscellaneous views, probably during the visit of William H. Taft, 1907
Taken by A. Moscioni.Unidentified views, possibly Philippines
Unidentified views
Unidentified military base, undated
Unidentified ruins, possibly France, 1917-1919
III. Miscellaneous photographs
Animals
Miss Ransom, 1906
Taken by J. E. Iserigg, Chicago.Portrait of a dog in the field.
Photographs of artwork featuring horses and dogs
Horse, undated.
Bridges
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, 1925
Photograph of a proposed design for the Golden Gate Bridge signed H. D. Jenkins, 1925.
Golden Gate bridge, San Francisco, 1924
Photograph of perspective drawing signed H. D. Jenkins, 1924.
Postcards
Postcards, ca. 1900-1929
Postcards, some sent to Clarence Edwards from family and friends, others unused.
Zeppelins
Zeppelins, ca. 1900-1929
Photographs of military and civilian zeppelins, including plans and drawings.
Preferred Citation
Clarence Ransom Edwards photographs, Photo. Coll. 264, Massachusetts Historical Society Photo Archives.
Access Terms
This collection is indexed under the following headings in ABIGAIL, the online catalog of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Researchers desiring materials about related persons, organizations, or subjects should search the catalog using these headings.